Student Film Academy

 The Studio System

The Golden Age of Hollywood was from the end of the 1920s through to the start of the 1960s, give or take. Since the American economy boomed in the mid 20s, with manufacturing taking off in areas like the automotive trade, film was no different. The institutions of Hollywood made Film into a big product, with Wall Street Investor’s money, much like any other part of the capitalist mechanism in the USA at the time.

Such was the level of wealth associated with this industry, Hollywood became the symbol of renaissance, wealth and national morale in the USA. The lights, sounds, and glamour of Hollywood helped people to escape the sometimes grim realities.

However, The ‘Studio System’ strangled independent cinema from the 1930s right up to the 1960s. It was run by the producers that worked within it, and the films that they produced were under their total control directors and writers, was generally lost to the ‘system’

The Box Office

​It goes without saying then, that some of the most profitable films of all time were made in the Golden Age. The box office, a term for the collective takings from the sale of tickets, determined the most successful films of the year - at least in terms of their financial gain.

Here are the top box office films of all time, not adjusted for the relative value of the money. As we can see there are some huge numbers here.

Yet still, when adjusting for the relative cost of the currency, allowing for what it would be worth in 2020 money… the highest selling film of all time is still… Gone with the Wind (1939).

Why is that? You might be wondering. A few factors play into the popularity of Gone with the Wind. Try to answer this inquiry question:

Question: What made Gone with the Wind the highest selling film of all time?

Here are some things to consider as you compare Gone with the Wind to any film in the non-adjusted list above.

• Length of time that the picture was running in cinemas.

• Cost of tickets relative to the cost of say, a loaf of bread in 1939, compared to now.

• Frequency of visits to the cinema by the population at the time.

• International revenue vs domestic revenue (not in Gone with the Wind’s favour).

• Other forms of consumption of films, e.g internet streaming services.

• Piracy (illegal replication of films)

• Range of films available in cinemas, including the control of distribution of films by production companies

You might find that in the current context, where cinemas and theatres have been forced to close due to pandemics, that Gone with the Wind maintains it’s place in the list for some time.

The Big Five

During the Golden Age, Eight studios collectively produced 95% of all American films. ‘The Big Five’  major studios made attempts to prevent independent films from being exhibited. More than 7,500 features were released by the studios between 1930 and 1945 to eager audiences and more than 80 million people took in a least one film per week at the height of the cinema’s popularity – even during the great depression!

If you looked into the last point on the list above, you might see that the the distribution of films was tightly controlled by the production companies. Gone with the Wind was an “A” film - that is, one of the most desired films shown. It cost more to make and was a premium product at the time. Cinemas would have to be signed up with the distribution house in order to be allowed to show it. In addition, they would have to buy additional films from the same producers to fill up their schedule. Often these were hastily produced, cheaper films. They were known as “B” movies.

You might see the same pattern today when choosing an internet streaming service. Many sell themselves to you based on a few highly popular films or series, but come with many more films for you to watch (that you didn’t necessarily factor into your decision to purchase a subscription).

This controlled distribution of films was a part of the studio system and was mainly controlled by five major companies.

Star Theory

A Star is Born…

Or are they made? Certainly, in the studio system of the Golden Age, stars were part of the institution. The actor would be schooled and managed into a picture-perfect product that audiences would adore, admire or appreciate for whichever role they played.

When cinema first began in the USA, the actors weren’t even credited. They were part of a process and were not part of the brand. However, actors work with a studio was prolific, and audiences began to recognise them. One actress, who featured in over 300 movies from 1906 onwards, caught the attention of the movie-goers who initially knew her as the “Biograph Girl”.

“Biograph” was the name of the studio. Her name was almost as catchy - Florence Lawrence, and she is known as possibly the first “movie-star”. She appeared in popular magazines and newspapers and people discussed her as an enigma at first, particularly when her next studio “Independent Moving Pictures”, her next studio, created a publicity stunt announcing that she had died in a car crash, before later revealing her death to be a hoax, and in fact, she had a new picture on the way.

These manipulations of the personal lives of celebrities by the press is still very much a common part of stardom, as we’ll see as we look critically at the work of Richard Dyer’s “Stars”, or the theory behind what makes a star, a star.

Star Quality

Not every actor obtains Star Status. It is a combination of many things including their personality, principles and the publicity that they gain from their private lives as well as their promotion of the films they star in.

Audiences may expect that the characters the actors play in some way represent who the star is in real life. They might look at the news and features in magazines to glean some extra information about the Star personality. Who the star is in real life matters to the audience.

The most popular stars command high fees partly due to good business sense; they draw in the crowds at the box office and improve the appeal of the story. They might be known for their artistic and technical performance skills, but also their Star Quality is often as much about the positive reputation and expectation from the audience.

Dyers Stars

Richard Dyers influential study of 1979 identified various Star ‘Types’, that were based on the relationships between celebrity and Star Images. It is not so much about the performance on screen as it is about their image according to the audience’s perceptions. 

Dyer looked at three aspects of Star Theory – the Star as a product of the Industry and Audience, as a social Construction, and related to the audience through Hegemony.

Audience and Industry/Institutions – “Stars are made to make money for that purpose alone.“

The institution then modifies the stars image around the target audience. Many pop-stars are also treated in this way. This can lead to stars fitting a “type-cast” and audiences expecting the movie-star to be exactly like the characters they play in their films.

Constructions – “The star is built for an audience and they are more than the actual person”.

The star is built specifically with something signature to them that differentiates them from other stars, for example Lady Gaga’s outrageous fashion. This is about how stars are treated within the media, including public appearances, interviews and any form of promotion. The star is a constructed persona beyond the film itself.

Hegemony – “Stars have a feature that we admire or share with them.”

This develops from an admiration into an idolisation. Some people may attempt to replicate what they like about the star, treating them as role-models. This can be negative if the star’s behaviour is damaging or even criminal. Stars are treated as a form of cultural identity, some even being considered “National Treasures.”

Questions: Can you find a Star who frequently engages with cultural or socio-political issues through discourse – either in public or online?

Are they associated with any brands or organisations?

How does it affect their image?

What are the positives and negatives of star involvement with causes/charities?

Which part of their image or role choices do you identify with?

Five Types of Star

Dyer proposed that there were five types of star:

•The Good Joe

•The Tough Guy

•The Pin-Up

•The Rebel

•The Independent Woman

These usually also endorse the values of the country they hail from

Star Vehicles

Some stars had such power to draw audiences to the cinema, that studios would create films specifically for that Star. These films were known as ‘Star Vehicles’, because these prominent, popular actors and actresses would ‘drive’ them.

Arnold Schwarzenegger, before he was the governor of California, was an example of an actor who had numerous “star vehicles", where the films were written around his “Tough Guy” character fighting bad guys. See True Lies, or even Kindergarten Cop!

Can you think of any current examples of Star Vehicles?

Going against type-cast.

Take Henry Fonda. (The Classic Good Joe)

He was cast against type as villainous Frank in Sergio Leone’s Once Upon a Time in the West. Leone wanted to challenge Fonda’s image for impact.

What effect does this have on the audiences response to the scene? Why?

Can you think of any other examples of actors hired against their typecasting?

Task: Choose a modern actor that fits one of the five types above. Imagine you are the actor’s agent, writing a press-release for a magazine article featuring this actor as a star.

•Write a 750-word analysis of the star power of one actor / actress from the past or present.

Explain in normal everyday language what made them a star (thinking of Dyer’s Star Theory)

Don’t write just a response to their work – you are looking into the many factors that made / kept them famous, including real life events.

The Production Process

In this section you will learn about the “Classicism” approach to filmmaking, which aims to tell the story in the most believable way possible, somewhere between the Formalism and Realism approaches you will learn elsewhere.

You will also discover the Studio Production System, based on the North American standards of Hollywood. You will learn to follow the shooting protocol that has been refined over the years to be the most efficient system. 

You will also learn about the Visual Language of Film and how visual elements can be used to create meaning.

Boxout for the spectrum of filmic style - from formalism to realism, with classicism in the middle. A continuum/line with Formalism at one end (using the film form) to realism at the other (based on real locations, available light, and the faithful replication of reality. Classicism used elements of both, sitting somewhere in the middle.

The five stages of production

The film industry as a business, has operated for many years to refine the process of manufacturing a quality film product. The method used might seem a long route to getting a shot captured but it has been proven to be the most efficient way of generating something that works. After all, as the old saying goes “time is money” and producers would insist on a shorter process if there were one. Skipping any of these steps can amount to more time later on going back to fill in shots that are needed in the edit, or simply a scene that doesn’t work as well.

Here are five stages commonly used in manufacturing a film.

• Blocking

• Lighting

• Rehearsals

• Adjustments (tweaking)

• Shooting

These steps are commonly used in the North American and European film-making process. There is a strict protocol on many large productions, whereby all members of the crew are expected to follow these stages with professionalism. Every member of the team must perform their function well in order to ensure the success of the scene. It’s a great responsibility, from the director, to the 2nd assistant camera person (who will be the one to press record on those final takes.

If possible is there a good infographic that can be created here for the 5 stages with notes and visual icons etc?

Blocking

Blocking is the movement and position of the actors relative to camera. Initially, blocking will be done without equipment set up. It is arguably the most important stage of production. It takes several takes, just like in shooting (maybe more) to establish where everyone needs to be to get the most out of the script. Good directors spend nearly 50% of their budgeted time on blocking. It’s a great opportunity for actors to get into the role. On the final take of blocking, positions are marked so they can easily be found by the actors and crew later.

LIGHTING

Lighting is the stage of production where everyone sets up, not just the cameras, but also the light fixtures etc. A good director will consult with the Director of Photography at this stage. A good Director of Photography will be watching the blocking closely to think about how they will want the lights and cameras set up. The cast will likely leave the set to practice and get themselves prepared for the real takes of the scene. The director might go with them to discuss the finer points. The director of photography communicates in advance when they will expect the equipment to be set up and when they would like the cast to return.

Rehearsals

With everything set, the actors can rehearse getting the scene just right. A good team won’t actually record at this point - the focus will purely be about getting the performances just right, and the crew will be practicing the camera movements, focus and testing the sound to make sure everything goes smoothly. They won’t interrupt the rehearsal though, not yet.

Adjustments

Now the crew can make final adjustments, tweaking the sound set up, the camera position and communicating with their department head at this stage about what is needed. Once everything is prepared…

Shooting

The final stage is recording the takes. A “slate” or clapperboard is used to mark each take to make the job easier for the editor. The aim is to have a very smooth run, just like in live theatre. It saves time later for the editor and ensures the quality of the film. If everything has been done correctly so far, perhaps only 2-3 takes for each angle will be needed. Directors tend to start with wide shots - including a “master” shot which is the whole scene played out from an angle that captures all the action. They might then move to medium shots. Close ups tend to come last because they demand the most subtle performances from the actor’s faces, and by that time, the actors will be in the flow of the scene (hopefully!). Coverage of other objects, such as close ups on action involving props can be picked up after this before wrapping on the scene. “That’s a wrap” is called by the assistant director, satisfyingly, when everything has been captured successfully. Good cinematographers and sound recorders check and playback shots after they are recorded to make sure they got everything OK.

TASK: Production roles

Choose a role in production. The main areas on a short film might include:

• Director

• Cinematographer (Director of Photography)

• Sound Recorder

• Editor

• Screenwriter/Script Supervisor

Choose a role to research.

1. Define the role

2. Give an example of someone who does that role in a film you’ve seen.

3. Show screenshots of their work, and explain what skills they need.

4. Research what qualifications and experience you would need to get that role in a large film production.

Resources like https://www.screenskills.com/ and https://www.creativeskillseurope.eu/creative-skillset/ might be helpful, but use keywords such as the name of the role, job requirements and look for actual job advertisements for that role online.

There are also many other important roles in the production process, forming a diverse team of skills and responsibilities. The main three roles that act as the “trinity” of creative control and head up departments are the Director, the Director of Photography and the Art Director.

The Hays Code

Resolved, That those things which are included in the following list shall not appear in pictures produced by the members of this Association, irrespective of the manner in which they are treated:

1. Pointed profanity – by either title or lip – this includes the words "God," "Lord," "Jesus," "Christ" (unless they be used reverently in connection with proper religious ceremonies), "hell," "damn," "Gawd," and every other profane and vulgar expression however it may be spelled;

2. Any licentious or suggestive nudity – in fact or in silhouette; and any lecherous or licentious notice thereof by other characters in the picture;

3. The illegal traffic in drugs;

4. Any inference of sex perversion

5. White slavery

6. Miscegenation (sex relationships between the white and black races)

7. Sex hygiene (sexual health) and venereal diseases;

8. Scenes of actual childbirth – in fact or in silhouette;

9. Children's sex organs;

10. Ridicule of the clergy;

11. Willful offense to any nation, race or creed.

The list above shows things that were outright banned in the classification guidelines of the Golden Age of Hollywood, from 1930 into the 1960s. It is named after Will H. Hays, who was the president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA). The Hay’s Code enforced what were seen to be American values.

What priorities do you agree with for today?

Which items of the code do you disagree with?

Choose one of the following: To what extent is censorship necessary? OR To what extent can authorities determine the values represented in art and culture?

Psycho Remake/Allegory Film

Using the process listed above in the stages of production, recreate the famous shower scene from psycho. There are many shots in this scene, so it will take good planning to decide how many angles and takes you’ll need to shoot. Remember that working under the Hay’s Code, Hitchcock shot in a way to mask the nudity. Your actors do not need to be naked! (This is very important in a high school production). You can have your actors fully clothed. The objective is to capture the angles.

Alternatively, pick a scene of your choice and attempt to recreate it.

The Greatest Film of all Time?

Citizen Kane (1941) was produced by RKO Pictures and Directed by Orson Welles. It was considered to be “the greatest film of all time” due to the creative use of camera, lighting and mise en scene. It is said that every frame of the film is filled with meaning.

Citizen Kane drew comparisons at the time to the media mogul William Randolph Hurst. Writers Orson Welles and Herman J. Mankiewicz have explained there are many such references, including Howard Hughes (Later portrayed by Leonardo De Caprio in Aviator). At the time Hearst used his influence in an attempt to prevent the film from being released.

Can you think of a modern parallel to this, which real-life character seen in today’s news could you make a film about?

Citizen Kane is so well regarded partly because of the extremely fine crafting of the film language used. Using the 15 points of Mise en scene we can ’read’ the film.

§Dominance

§Lighting

§Shot and Camera Proxemics

§Angle

§Colour/Value

§Lens/Filter/Stock

§Subsidiary Contrasts

§Density

§Composition

§Form

§Framing

§Depth of Field

§Character Placement

§Staging Positions

§Character Proxemics

You should also consider the Signs, Symbols Codes and Motifs

Complete a full filmic analysis of Citizen Kane as your Film Journal for this unit.